Frans_Jozef
Wednesday, November 30th, 2005, 02:38 AM
The Goths in Greater Poland
Tadeusz Makiewicz
During the first centuries ad, referred to by Polish archaeologists
as the Period of Roman Influences, three large cultural complexes,
probably associated with three different peoples, made their mark in
the present-day territories of Poland. Southern and central Poland
was occupied by the Przeworsk Culture, which gained its name from the
village of Przeworsk, situated in Lesser Poland (Maűopolska), where
the first cemeteries typical of this culture were discovered. This
culture emerged at the beginning of the second century bc and
continued to thrive for several hundred years, right up until the
Migration Period. The regions of Warmia and Mazuria (Mazury) were
inhabited by representatives of the Western Balt Culture, which
developed independently of its neighbours, and differed from them
distinctly, bearing, however, a clear relationship to Baltic peoples.
In contrast, during the first decades ad, an entirely new culture
began to take shape in Pomerania. Archaeologists dubbed it the
Wielbark Culture, after the site at Wielbark (currently Malbork-
Wielbark), where the first cemetery of this culture was found. This
area of Poland had previously been occupied by the Oksywie Culture,
closely related to the Przeworsk Culture, but differing in many
aspects from the subsequent Wielbark Culture. At the beginning of its
existence the Wielbark Culture had exactly the same territorial
extent as the Oksywie Culture. Thus, it covered an area stretching
along the Lower Vistula from Gdańsk to Chełmno in the south, whilst
to the west it encompassed a large proportion of Pomerania, reaching
beyond the River Parsęta. Later on it extended even further, into the
of Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands and into northern Greater
Poland, stretching south towards the Poznań region. Another marked
change took place during the first half of the third century ad, when
the Wielbark Culture withdrew from Greater Poland and from virtually
the whole of Pomerania, apart from those territories situated nearest
the Vistula Estuary. At the same time, expansion to the south-east
began, Wielbark communities settling in Mazovia (Mazowsze) and Little
Poland to the east of the Vistula, even reaching as far as the
Ukraine.
Hence, by about the mid first century ad, the Przeworsk societies
which had previously lived in northern Greater Poland had been
displaced by the Wielbark Culture whose own freshly founded
settlements and cemeteries continued to exist here for approximately
150 years. These cultures were separated by a clear divide, contacts
between them having been so minimal as to not be detectable by
archaeological methods. Thus, we can conclude that they represented
two clearly disassociated tribal groups.
What were the distinguishing characteristics of the Wielbark Culture?
Wielbark societies practised both cremation and inhumation rites for
burying their dead. The proportion of inhumation to cremation burials
at Wielbark Culture cemeteries varies greatly from site to site. It
is difficult to say where these differences in burial rites came
from; whether they resulted from differences in religion or from the
different cultural traditions of a particular family. This latter
theory seems rather more convincing, as identical grave goods
accompanied both forms of burial.
The custom of raising stone-covered burial mounds of various shapes
is another typical feature of this culture, as are stone circles,
stelae and numerous types of cobble cladding. Wielbark Culture grave
goods did not include weapons or tools (which was one of the stock
items of Przeworsk Culture burials), ornaments and elements of
costume taking precedence in this respect. A very limited number of
male burials contained spurs - the only object in the entire grave
assemblage related to a warrior's equipment. The final characteristic
feature of this culture is the predominant use of bronze for making
ornaments and dress accessories, silver being used much less often
and gold only very rarely, whilst iron was practically never used. It
should also be added that virtually no Wielbark settlements have been
recorded in this area, which means that we have a rather one-sided
view of this culture as we know very little of the everyday life of
its communities.
Evidence of the Wielbark Culture in Greater Poland comes from the
cemetery at Kowalewko. Two large Wielbark cemetery sites had already
earlier been excavated in northern Greater Poland (at Lutomie and
Słopanów), whilst numerous smaller burial grounds and single graves,
or individual items from them, had also been noted across the entire
region. The cemetery at Kowalewko is, however, one of the largest
burial sites in the whole of Poland and has yielded a particularly
rich collection of beautiful finds. Archaeologists had not previously
been aware of its existence. Therefore, it is entirely thanks to the
fact that the gas pipeline was scheduled to pass through the cemetery
that led to its discovery and excavation.
The Kowalewko cemetery site was first recorded during the course of
fieldwalking along the route of the proposed gas pipeline. Excavation
work began in 1995 and to-date has revealed a total of over 400
graves. By looking at a site plan showing all of the burials
discovered thus far and taking into consideration the surrounding
terrain, we can estimate that approximately 80% of the whole cemetery
has now been explored, meaning that the grand total of burials may
ultimately amount to between 500 and 550.
Both cremations and inhumations are represented at this cemetery. The
latter are, naturally, of smaller dimensions, the burnt bones of the
dead having been placed inside a pottery vessel known as an urn or
deposited directly inside a modestly-sized burial pit. Cremations
make up approximately 40% of the burials at Kowalewko. Inhumations
were placed in plank-built coffins, or very occasionally, inside a
coffin made from a single hollowed-out tree-trunk. Some graves were
marked on the surface by a solitary stone, whilst in two instances,
large boulders, selected for their specific form and additionally
hewn into shape, had been used. Strange, atypical rituals involving
the treatment of the skeleton were observed in a number of burials,
such as turning the skull upside-down or positioning it on the chest
or in the leg area.
No differences were noted in the grave goods included with inhumation
and cremation burials.
The deceased individual was interred with articles which had belonged
to him or her in life. In accordance with the principles of this
culture, these consisted almost exclusively of dress accessories or
ornaments, i.e. bracelets, bead necklaces, pendants, buckles and
bronze belt fittings. The most numerously encountered form of burial
good consisted of fibulae (a type of brooch used for fastening
robes), which were often very decorative and extremely well-made. Two
or three of these were usually found accompanying each burial. Fewer
graves contained only a single fibula, whilst some rare examples had
up to four. The fibulae are found in pairs, positioned at shoulder
height, with the third brooch securing the robe at the chest.
Bracelets, often with finials in the shape of stylized snake's heads,
also served as grave goods. Hair-pins made of silver, bronze and bone
were another common find. Beads, however, accounted for the greatest
quantity of burial finds. They came in various shapes and sizes and
were made from amber, glass or silver. In some cases, necklaces
consisting of up to 300 beads were found. These necklaces were
fastened with silver `S'-shaped clasps, made of either silver or gold
and very skilfully decorated. Further items of jewellery included
bronze and silver pendants and, in a very few rare instances, gold
ones. Pottery vessels, bone combs and metal fittings from wooden
trinket boxes also featured as grave goods, whilst bronze spurs were
found exclusively with male burials. Spurs were the only warrior-
related items found in these graves. They included examples made in
the Roman Empire and imported to this region. Undoubtedly, the most
attractive artefact among the vast array recovered was a beautifully
decorated bronze jug.
The Kowalewko cemetery dates from approximately the mid first century
ad, to c. ad 220. Thus, it remained in use for a period of about 170
years - a total of about seven generations. We can conclude,
therefore, that one generation numbered around eighty individuals.
It is worth adding that a Wielbark Culture settlement site had
already earlier been excavated at Kowalewko; Greater Poland being the
only region where numerous other settlements of this culture have
been discovered. Several of these sites were recorded during the
course of archaeological fieldwork along the route of the pipeline.
As a result, we have been able to gain an insight into the settlement
types and everyday lives of Wielbark societies.
The outline given above of the cemetery site at Kowalewko and of the
Wielbark Culture to which it belongs does not answer the question of
which race of people this culture was related to. What lies behind
the strange names afforded these communities by archaeologists? Who
were the people who inhabited these territories? What language did
they speak and where did they come from?
Putting an ethnic origin to the many archaeologically
defined `cultures' is one of the most difficult problems facing
researchers in this discipline today. This difficulty arises from two
main sources. Firstly, what relation do archaeological cultures bear
to specific ethnic units, i.e. to tribes and peoples? This issue has
been hotly debated since the very dawn of archaeology and remains
unresolved. Secondly, only a fragmented and very limited number of
written sources exist which allude to Poland during this period, and
can offer us some clues as to the nature of settlement in these
territories.
Researchers have traditionally associated the Wielbark Culture with
the Scandinavian peoples known as the Goths, maintaining that it was
founded as a result of Gothic migration from their home territories
in the Swedish province of Gotland or the Island of Gotlandia. Having
completed a lengthy stay in Poland, these tribes then continued their
migration to the Black Sea coast. The latest results of work carried
out by archaeologists and historians indicates, however, that the
real situation was not quite so straightforward and that we cannot
simply equate the Wielbark Culture with the Goths.
Ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder, Tacit and Ptolemy make
mention of the Goths in their works, Tacit referring to their having
been involved in an incident which took place in ad 19 on the
territory of what is now the Czech Republic. The most important
information, however, is proffered by the sixth-century writer
Jordanes, who lived during the reign of the Emperor Justinian.
Jordanes records that in the reign of King Berig, the Goths set sail
from the Island of Skandia (i.e. modern-day Scandinavia) in three
ships, alighting at the other side of the ocean, in a land which they
called Gothiskandza, subjugating the neighbouring populations. Under
the reign of Berig V they embarked on a further voyage to the land of
Oium, i.e. to the northern territories of the Black Sea coast. A
variety of interpretations have been put forward in relation to the
three ships. The number was considered by some to have been merely
symbolic, whilst others believed that it stood for three tribes - the
Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Gepidae - or took it literally to refer to
three sailing vessels carrying the Amal royal family, of which
Theoderic the Great was a descendant.
Recent archaeological research and lengthy debate on this subject
have, however, established that the Wielbark Culture did not simply
come into being as a result of the arrival of tribes of Scandinavian
Goths in Pomerania. Instead, it evolved from the development of the
local Oksywie Culture, possibly having been subject to outside
influences from Scvandinavia. This is evidenced primarily by the fact
that in its initial phase, the Wielbark Culture had exactly the same
territorial extent as the Oksywie Culture, many cemeteries having
been kept in continued use by these two societies. Wielbark
communities comprised mostly members of tribes already settled in
this area with the addition of Scandinavian migrants, who maybe
arrived here in small groups. At present, it is thought that those
areas which were inhabited directly by Gothic peoples are
characterised by the presence of extensive barrow cemeteries of the
Odry-Węsiory-Grzybnica type, at which stone circles consisting of
large boulders were raised. These were sites of a ritual character
where tribal meetings (known as things) took place. Sites of this
type are found in the Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands, extending to
the Koszalin region in the Central Lakelands, hence, to the west of
the Vistula. These burial grounds began to appear across this area
during the latter part of the first century ad, at the same time that
the Kowalewko cemetery was founded.
This area is also associated with the Wielbark Culture, whose
communities settled in Greater Poland during the same period and
exhibit a number of close links with the aforementioned lakelands. We
do not, however, have any evidence of stone circles or cobble-clad
graves from Greater Poland, barrow burials being a rarity - only
three having been recorded in the peripheral zone of this region. The
Wielbark Culture appears to have been composed of Scandinavian Goths
and Gepidae as well as of earlier local communities - the Venedi and
Rugii. The woodlands of the Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands, lying
to the north-east of Greater Poland, are where groups of Goths are
believed to have established their own settlements. The Wielbark
Culture is thought to have reached Greater Poland from Pomerania,
displacing the local Przeworsk Culture. Whether the Wielbark Culture
was really of Gothic ethnic origin or made up of a number of
different tribes (including Goths), we cannot say. In later years, at
the beginning of the third century ad, they abandoned the territories
of Greater Poland and Pomerania, moving on, together with their
kinsfolk, until they reached the promised land of Oium, situated in
modern-day Ukraine, where they founded their mighty empire.
http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm
Tadeusz Makiewicz
During the first centuries ad, referred to by Polish archaeologists
as the Period of Roman Influences, three large cultural complexes,
probably associated with three different peoples, made their mark in
the present-day territories of Poland. Southern and central Poland
was occupied by the Przeworsk Culture, which gained its name from the
village of Przeworsk, situated in Lesser Poland (Maűopolska), where
the first cemeteries typical of this culture were discovered. This
culture emerged at the beginning of the second century bc and
continued to thrive for several hundred years, right up until the
Migration Period. The regions of Warmia and Mazuria (Mazury) were
inhabited by representatives of the Western Balt Culture, which
developed independently of its neighbours, and differed from them
distinctly, bearing, however, a clear relationship to Baltic peoples.
In contrast, during the first decades ad, an entirely new culture
began to take shape in Pomerania. Archaeologists dubbed it the
Wielbark Culture, after the site at Wielbark (currently Malbork-
Wielbark), where the first cemetery of this culture was found. This
area of Poland had previously been occupied by the Oksywie Culture,
closely related to the Przeworsk Culture, but differing in many
aspects from the subsequent Wielbark Culture. At the beginning of its
existence the Wielbark Culture had exactly the same territorial
extent as the Oksywie Culture. Thus, it covered an area stretching
along the Lower Vistula from Gdańsk to Chełmno in the south, whilst
to the west it encompassed a large proportion of Pomerania, reaching
beyond the River Parsęta. Later on it extended even further, into the
of Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands and into northern Greater
Poland, stretching south towards the Poznań region. Another marked
change took place during the first half of the third century ad, when
the Wielbark Culture withdrew from Greater Poland and from virtually
the whole of Pomerania, apart from those territories situated nearest
the Vistula Estuary. At the same time, expansion to the south-east
began, Wielbark communities settling in Mazovia (Mazowsze) and Little
Poland to the east of the Vistula, even reaching as far as the
Ukraine.
Hence, by about the mid first century ad, the Przeworsk societies
which had previously lived in northern Greater Poland had been
displaced by the Wielbark Culture whose own freshly founded
settlements and cemeteries continued to exist here for approximately
150 years. These cultures were separated by a clear divide, contacts
between them having been so minimal as to not be detectable by
archaeological methods. Thus, we can conclude that they represented
two clearly disassociated tribal groups.
What were the distinguishing characteristics of the Wielbark Culture?
Wielbark societies practised both cremation and inhumation rites for
burying their dead. The proportion of inhumation to cremation burials
at Wielbark Culture cemeteries varies greatly from site to site. It
is difficult to say where these differences in burial rites came
from; whether they resulted from differences in religion or from the
different cultural traditions of a particular family. This latter
theory seems rather more convincing, as identical grave goods
accompanied both forms of burial.
The custom of raising stone-covered burial mounds of various shapes
is another typical feature of this culture, as are stone circles,
stelae and numerous types of cobble cladding. Wielbark Culture grave
goods did not include weapons or tools (which was one of the stock
items of Przeworsk Culture burials), ornaments and elements of
costume taking precedence in this respect. A very limited number of
male burials contained spurs - the only object in the entire grave
assemblage related to a warrior's equipment. The final characteristic
feature of this culture is the predominant use of bronze for making
ornaments and dress accessories, silver being used much less often
and gold only very rarely, whilst iron was practically never used. It
should also be added that virtually no Wielbark settlements have been
recorded in this area, which means that we have a rather one-sided
view of this culture as we know very little of the everyday life of
its communities.
Evidence of the Wielbark Culture in Greater Poland comes from the
cemetery at Kowalewko. Two large Wielbark cemetery sites had already
earlier been excavated in northern Greater Poland (at Lutomie and
Słopanów), whilst numerous smaller burial grounds and single graves,
or individual items from them, had also been noted across the entire
region. The cemetery at Kowalewko is, however, one of the largest
burial sites in the whole of Poland and has yielded a particularly
rich collection of beautiful finds. Archaeologists had not previously
been aware of its existence. Therefore, it is entirely thanks to the
fact that the gas pipeline was scheduled to pass through the cemetery
that led to its discovery and excavation.
The Kowalewko cemetery site was first recorded during the course of
fieldwalking along the route of the proposed gas pipeline. Excavation
work began in 1995 and to-date has revealed a total of over 400
graves. By looking at a site plan showing all of the burials
discovered thus far and taking into consideration the surrounding
terrain, we can estimate that approximately 80% of the whole cemetery
has now been explored, meaning that the grand total of burials may
ultimately amount to between 500 and 550.
Both cremations and inhumations are represented at this cemetery. The
latter are, naturally, of smaller dimensions, the burnt bones of the
dead having been placed inside a pottery vessel known as an urn or
deposited directly inside a modestly-sized burial pit. Cremations
make up approximately 40% of the burials at Kowalewko. Inhumations
were placed in plank-built coffins, or very occasionally, inside a
coffin made from a single hollowed-out tree-trunk. Some graves were
marked on the surface by a solitary stone, whilst in two instances,
large boulders, selected for their specific form and additionally
hewn into shape, had been used. Strange, atypical rituals involving
the treatment of the skeleton were observed in a number of burials,
such as turning the skull upside-down or positioning it on the chest
or in the leg area.
No differences were noted in the grave goods included with inhumation
and cremation burials.
The deceased individual was interred with articles which had belonged
to him or her in life. In accordance with the principles of this
culture, these consisted almost exclusively of dress accessories or
ornaments, i.e. bracelets, bead necklaces, pendants, buckles and
bronze belt fittings. The most numerously encountered form of burial
good consisted of fibulae (a type of brooch used for fastening
robes), which were often very decorative and extremely well-made. Two
or three of these were usually found accompanying each burial. Fewer
graves contained only a single fibula, whilst some rare examples had
up to four. The fibulae are found in pairs, positioned at shoulder
height, with the third brooch securing the robe at the chest.
Bracelets, often with finials in the shape of stylized snake's heads,
also served as grave goods. Hair-pins made of silver, bronze and bone
were another common find. Beads, however, accounted for the greatest
quantity of burial finds. They came in various shapes and sizes and
were made from amber, glass or silver. In some cases, necklaces
consisting of up to 300 beads were found. These necklaces were
fastened with silver `S'-shaped clasps, made of either silver or gold
and very skilfully decorated. Further items of jewellery included
bronze and silver pendants and, in a very few rare instances, gold
ones. Pottery vessels, bone combs and metal fittings from wooden
trinket boxes also featured as grave goods, whilst bronze spurs were
found exclusively with male burials. Spurs were the only warrior-
related items found in these graves. They included examples made in
the Roman Empire and imported to this region. Undoubtedly, the most
attractive artefact among the vast array recovered was a beautifully
decorated bronze jug.
The Kowalewko cemetery dates from approximately the mid first century
ad, to c. ad 220. Thus, it remained in use for a period of about 170
years - a total of about seven generations. We can conclude,
therefore, that one generation numbered around eighty individuals.
It is worth adding that a Wielbark Culture settlement site had
already earlier been excavated at Kowalewko; Greater Poland being the
only region where numerous other settlements of this culture have
been discovered. Several of these sites were recorded during the
course of archaeological fieldwork along the route of the pipeline.
As a result, we have been able to gain an insight into the settlement
types and everyday lives of Wielbark societies.
The outline given above of the cemetery site at Kowalewko and of the
Wielbark Culture to which it belongs does not answer the question of
which race of people this culture was related to. What lies behind
the strange names afforded these communities by archaeologists? Who
were the people who inhabited these territories? What language did
they speak and where did they come from?
Putting an ethnic origin to the many archaeologically
defined `cultures' is one of the most difficult problems facing
researchers in this discipline today. This difficulty arises from two
main sources. Firstly, what relation do archaeological cultures bear
to specific ethnic units, i.e. to tribes and peoples? This issue has
been hotly debated since the very dawn of archaeology and remains
unresolved. Secondly, only a fragmented and very limited number of
written sources exist which allude to Poland during this period, and
can offer us some clues as to the nature of settlement in these
territories.
Researchers have traditionally associated the Wielbark Culture with
the Scandinavian peoples known as the Goths, maintaining that it was
founded as a result of Gothic migration from their home territories
in the Swedish province of Gotland or the Island of Gotlandia. Having
completed a lengthy stay in Poland, these tribes then continued their
migration to the Black Sea coast. The latest results of work carried
out by archaeologists and historians indicates, however, that the
real situation was not quite so straightforward and that we cannot
simply equate the Wielbark Culture with the Goths.
Ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder, Tacit and Ptolemy make
mention of the Goths in their works, Tacit referring to their having
been involved in an incident which took place in ad 19 on the
territory of what is now the Czech Republic. The most important
information, however, is proffered by the sixth-century writer
Jordanes, who lived during the reign of the Emperor Justinian.
Jordanes records that in the reign of King Berig, the Goths set sail
from the Island of Skandia (i.e. modern-day Scandinavia) in three
ships, alighting at the other side of the ocean, in a land which they
called Gothiskandza, subjugating the neighbouring populations. Under
the reign of Berig V they embarked on a further voyage to the land of
Oium, i.e. to the northern territories of the Black Sea coast. A
variety of interpretations have been put forward in relation to the
three ships. The number was considered by some to have been merely
symbolic, whilst others believed that it stood for three tribes - the
Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Gepidae - or took it literally to refer to
three sailing vessels carrying the Amal royal family, of which
Theoderic the Great was a descendant.
Recent archaeological research and lengthy debate on this subject
have, however, established that the Wielbark Culture did not simply
come into being as a result of the arrival of tribes of Scandinavian
Goths in Pomerania. Instead, it evolved from the development of the
local Oksywie Culture, possibly having been subject to outside
influences from Scvandinavia. This is evidenced primarily by the fact
that in its initial phase, the Wielbark Culture had exactly the same
territorial extent as the Oksywie Culture, many cemeteries having
been kept in continued use by these two societies. Wielbark
communities comprised mostly members of tribes already settled in
this area with the addition of Scandinavian migrants, who maybe
arrived here in small groups. At present, it is thought that those
areas which were inhabited directly by Gothic peoples are
characterised by the presence of extensive barrow cemeteries of the
Odry-Węsiory-Grzybnica type, at which stone circles consisting of
large boulders were raised. These were sites of a ritual character
where tribal meetings (known as things) took place. Sites of this
type are found in the Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands, extending to
the Koszalin region in the Central Lakelands, hence, to the west of
the Vistula. These burial grounds began to appear across this area
during the latter part of the first century ad, at the same time that
the Kowalewko cemetery was founded.
This area is also associated with the Wielbark Culture, whose
communities settled in Greater Poland during the same period and
exhibit a number of close links with the aforementioned lakelands. We
do not, however, have any evidence of stone circles or cobble-clad
graves from Greater Poland, barrow burials being a rarity - only
three having been recorded in the peripheral zone of this region. The
Wielbark Culture appears to have been composed of Scandinavian Goths
and Gepidae as well as of earlier local communities - the Venedi and
Rugii. The woodlands of the Kashubian and Krajeński Lakelands, lying
to the north-east of Greater Poland, are where groups of Goths are
believed to have established their own settlements. The Wielbark
Culture is thought to have reached Greater Poland from Pomerania,
displacing the local Przeworsk Culture. Whether the Wielbark Culture
was really of Gothic ethnic origin or made up of a number of
different tribes (including Goths), we cannot say. In later years, at
the beginning of the third century ad, they abandoned the territories
of Greater Poland and Pomerania, moving on, together with their
kinsfolk, until they reached the promised land of Oium, situated in
modern-day Ukraine, where they founded their mighty empire.
http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm